Introduction to Sociology

05/12/2011 Oana Cristina Merca Introduction to Sociological Themes and Perspectives The word â€Å"sociology† has its roots from the Latin â€Å"socius† which means â€Å"companion† and the Greek â€Å"ology† which means â€Å"the study of†. So basically, Sociology is one of the social sciences which aim is to explain human behaviour. Unlike Psychology, Sociology is much more concerned about social group’s behaviour including whole societies and even international and global groups. Of all the social sciences it is Sociology that most closely scrutinizes change and conflict in the wider society. The range of the discipline, and the importance of the arguments that are disputed within it, still make it the most exciting of the social sciences. However, it was not until the nineteenth century, as a consequence of industrial revolution, that we see a concern with society as a direct object of study. We could then determine, once and for all, what sort of social changes were possible. In its present form, Sociology embraces a range of different views concerning both what a social science should compromise, and what might be the proper subject-matter of Sociology in particular. The latter provides perhaps the best way of making sense of the discipline. This essay will explain, compare and contrast three of the main perspectives in Sociology: Functionalism, Marxism and Feminism. The founder of the Functionalism perspective was Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), whose theory was then further developed by Robert Merton (1910-2003). The Functionalist looks at society as a body where everything has a function. There are formal organizations as law, education, the family, the media, political system and informal social actions such as suicide, love, and crime. Altogether serve a function and have consequences on society. Crime is normal and found in every society. It shows us what is acceptable or not. Crime produces rituals as court processes and boundaries which show us who is in and who is out. Durkheim believed that a very high rate of crime or deviance shows that something had gone wrong with the society. Suicide is a social phenomenon which can be explained by things such as religion, economic situation, social structure, sexual orientation. Suicide is higher in protestant than catholic countries, more common among single people than married, more common in military than among civilians, rates of suicide drop in time of ar and they are higher in times of economic crisis. The anomie theory of Robert Merton (1957) is distinguished between cultural goals (material possessions, status symbols) and institutional means (opportunities to achieve these goals in a socially acceptable way). The situation where is too much emphasis on the cultural goals and not enough on the institutional means is known a s anomie. Talcott Parsons (1951) is talking about two basic functions of the family: the reproduction and the stabilisation of adult personality.

I Never Expected This Essay

Hey guys, I’m writing my English exam soon, and would really appreciate it if you can give me some suggestions one how to improve this piece. The word limit is 400~450, so I’m a little over the limit here. Topic is: This is the story of a young man/woman who was able to escape from a difficult past to make a success of his/her life. My essay: â€Å"This is the story of a young woman who was able to escape from a difficult past to make a success of†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I tuned off the school principal’s voice at this point, ignoring his excited gestures and flying spittle. I was eight then. The man came out of nowhere, and I remember pain, horror, screaming, torn clothes, more screaming†¦It was only afterwards, in the hospital, that I understood what had happened to me. Twenty years ago the society wasn’t exactly sympathetic towards rape victims; it still isn’t today. Principal Clarke’s voice pulled me back to reality. I stood up to the pitiful round of applause, and walked up the stage. As I looked down, half the students were dozing off; and most of the other half had a snicker on their face. I putted on a smile, and began to tell my story in a grave voice: how I struggled to live with my past; how my family gave me hope and support; how, after years of hard work, I finally became a bestselling author. It is a boring old story, nothing unheard of before. And if this speech managed to inspire even one of these students, it would be nothing short of a miracle. Of course, there are things that a high school guest speaker just cannot include in her speech. For example, the way my mother indulged in various substances after my â€Å"incident†, and my father and I never sent her to the rehabilitation centre for the fear of even more publicity. Or better, how I found my puppy strangled and hung from a tree one day, the words â€Å"WHORE† in red paint glistening right behind him. And the fact that my ex-boyfriend had left with all my money last year, leaving me too heartbroken to write is definitely unmentionable. If it was not for this, I would not have been stuck at this little school, allowing people to dig up my past for a minuscule payment in return. There are some things that a person simply cannot look past. I sat back down, and endured another hour of the old principal’s speech. Apparently, according to Principal Clarke, if I can live with been raped then the students can surely get over their teenage issues and focus on learning instead. His words are not what finally pushed me over the edge, though. It was his the way he looked at me – as if I am some pathetic, filthy stray dog. I caught his eyes when he turned towards me again, and smiled until he hurriedly looked away. The next morning I rose early, and in the aroma of fresh coffee listened to the radio news reporting the shocking, gruesome death of a certain high school principal. I hummed to myself, and started typing my new story.

Origin and Development of Applied Linguistics Essay

â€Å"Applied linguistics is not a discipline which exists on its own. It is influenced by other disciplines and influences them as well. It is a two-way process. For this reason, applied linguistics examines theories from all sorts of different areas (semantics, syntax, pragmatics, sociolinguistics,†¦) and from all sorts of perspectives so that it help find out effective solutions for language -related issues such as teaching methodology (including foreign language and mother tongue teaching), translation, aphasia,†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Applied linguistics originated in close relation with foreign language teaching and has developed to cover a wide range of knowledge, but its core has always been language teaching and learning. Applied linguistics draws its sources from sociology, psychology, anthropology and information theory as well as from linguistics to solve practical problems in practical areas such as language teaching. So applied linguistics is not linguistics that is applied, though it applies, first of all, linguistics. In fact, what it applies depends on what the theories are applied to. Applied linguistics, unlike pure science, aims to solve problems. Thus between theories of linguistics and related fields and the practical areas such as language teaching, it plays the role of a mediator, which bridges theories and practice together. In this way, applied linguistics not only provides principles and methodology for language teaching, etc. , but also gives feedbacks to the theoretical study by summing up the experience from practice. As applied linguistics makes language teaching and learning its core, it provides language teacher with good language theories, principles and methodology. By learning applied linguistics, language teacher can possess an overall understanding of updated theories of language teaching & learning as well as a better perspective of the various factors affecting language teaching &learning. So it is very necessary for a language teacher to learn applied linguistics in order to teach more effectively. As for language learners, it is also very helpful to have some knowledge about applied linguistics. For one thing, by knowing the currently used teaching approaches and methods, which are covered by applied linguistics, language learners can learn to adjust themselves to the teacher’s teaching by adopting a more proper learning method because â€Å"a theory of teaching always implies a theory of learning â€Å"(Applied Linguistics, Yue Meiyun) and language learning is a two – way process, which needs efforts and adaptation from bath the teacher’s side and the learner’s side. For another, applied linguistics covers a wide scope of knowledge. It helps to enhance learner’s insights and depth of knowledge in language learning. Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, computer science, anthropology, and sociology. The goal of this writing is to make some personal comment on the viewpoint: â€Å"Applied linguistics is not a discipline which exists on its own. It is influenced by other disciplines and influences them as well. It is a two-way process. For this reason, applied linguistics examines theories from all sorts of different areas (semantics, syntax, pragmatics, sociolinguistics,†¦) and from all sorts of perspectives so that it help find out effective solutions for language -related issues such as teaching methodology (including foreign language and mother tongue teaching), translation, aphasia,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Many linguistic students like me find linguistics useful because it broadens and deepens their understanding of related fields such as languages and literature (English and foreign), social sciences (especially anthropology, sociology, and psychology), education, philosophy, communication†¦ The question is whether applied linguistics and linguistics applied is the same. Needless to say, the answer is â€Å"no†. Phillip Shaw, Stockholm University Strictly looking at the model above by Philip Shaw, a professor from Stockholm University, we can see a basic coherence between applied linguistics and other sciences. According to the professor, studying linguistics means studying language’s sounds, grammar, words, meanings, uses, and connected contexts – that is phonetics, syntax, lexis, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse respectively. Of these, phonetics focuses on the physical sounds of speech. It covers speech perception (how the brain discerns sounds), acoustics (the physical qualities of sounds as movement through air), and articulation (voice production through the movements of the lungs, tongue, lips, and other articulators). This area investigates, for instance, the physical realization of speech and how individual sounds differ across languages and dialects. This research plays a large part in computer speech recognition and synthesis. Syntax is the study of how units including words and phrases combine into sentences. Syntacticians investigate what orders of words make legitimate sentences, how to succinctly account for patterns found across sentences. Semantics within linguistics refers to the study of how language conveys meaning. Pragmatics is the study of how utterances relate to the context they are spoken in. By areas studied, he distinguishes different kinds of linguistics. Sociolinguistics is the study where linguistics looks at how language functions in different social contexts. In other words, it is the study of how language varies according to cultural context, the speaker’s background, and the situation in which it is used. Meanwhile, historical linguistics studies how languages are historically related. This involves finding universal properties of language and accounting for a language’s development and origins. Psycholinguistics is the study of language to find out about how the mind works. Pr. Phillip Shaw emphasizes that we can applied all knowledge of the above-mentioned sciences. It is understandable, therefore, whereas theoretical linguistics is concerned with finding and describing generalities both within particular languages and among all languages, applied linguistics takes these results and applies them to other areas. He defines applied linguistics as an engineering of linguistics, taking what the sciences of linguistics have discovered and applied to solve real practical problems. Kamil Wisniewski, in his work ‘Applied Linguistics’ 2007, he presents the term applied linguistics as an umbrella term that covers a wide set of numerous areas of study connected by the focus on the language that is actually used. He puts the emphasis in applied linguistics on language users and the ways in which they use languages, contrary to theoretical linguistics which studies the language in the  abstract not referring it to any particular context, or language, like Chomskyan generative grammar for example. Interestingly even among applied linguists there is a difference of opinion as to the scope, the domains and limits of applied linguistics. There are many issues investigated by applied linguists such as discourse analysis, sign language, stylistics and rhetoric as well as language learning by children and adults, both as mother tongue and second or foreign language. Correlation of language and gender, as well as the transfer of information in media and interpersonal communication are analyzed by applied linguists. Also forensic linguistics, interpretation and translation, together with foreign language teaching methodology and language change are developed by applied linguistics. Shortly after the introduction of the term applied linguistics it was associated mainly with first, second and foreign language teaching, however nowadays it is seen as more interdisciplinary branch of science. Although in certain parts of the world language teaching remains the major concern of applied linguists, issues such as speech pathologies and determining the levels of literacy of societies, or language processing along with differences in communication between various cultural groups – all gain interest elsewhere. There is a consensus among linguists that is applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, computer science, anthropology, and sociology. Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, computer-mediated communication, conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, sign linguistics, language assessment, literacy, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, lexicography, language planning and policies, stylistics, pragmatics, forensic linguistics, and translation. For all of what I have presented above, I want to restate that applied linguistics does not exist on its own, it makes a great influence on other disciplines and also is influenced by them. The findings of linguistics, like the findings of any other theoretical study, can be applied to the solution of practical problems, as well as to innovations in everyday areas involving language. This is the mandate of applied linguistics. Applied linguists draw from theories of language acquisition to develop first and second language teaching methodologies and to implement successful literacy programs. Applied linguists may also engage in language planning by developing alphabets and grammars for unwritten languages and by writing dictionaries. In short, applied linguistics applies the theories and tools of formal linguistics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics in a wide variety of socially useful ways In his own work – â€Å"Issues in applied linguistics† (Cambridge University Press, 2001), Michael McCarthy presents applied linguistics as problem – solving concept. According to him, it is the belief that linguistics can offer insights and ways forward in the resolution of problems related to language in a wide variety of contexts that underlines the very existence of applied linguistics. Applied linguists try to offer solutions to real-world problems in which language is a central issue. People often think that applied linguistics refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, but this is just one sub-discipline. McCarthy lists out the domains of typical applied linguistic problems which, as he says, seems certainly be wide – ranging and potential endless, but might include 14 problems as following: 1- A speech therapist sets out to investigate why s four-year-old child has failed to develop normal linguistics skills for a child of that age. 2- A teacher of English as a foreign language wonders why groups of learners sharing the same first language regularly make a particular grammatical mistake that learners from other language backgrounds do not. 3- An expert witness in a criminal case tries to solve the problem of who exactly investigated a crime, working only with statements made to the police 4- A advertising copy writer searches for what would be the most effective use of language to target a particular social group in order to sell a product. 5- A mother-tongue teacher needs to know what potential employers consider important in terms of a school-leaver’s ability to write reports or other business documents. 6- A historian wishes to understand the meanings of place-names in a particular geographical area and how they have changed over time. 7- A person constructing a language test foe non-native speakers for entry into further education needs to know what the key linguistic or psycholinguistic indicators are of reading ability in a second of foreign language. 8- A literary scholar suspects that an anonymous work was in fact written by a very famous writer and looks for methods of investigating the hypothesis. 9- A dictionary writer ponders over possible alternatives to an alphabetically organized dictionary. 10- A computer programmer wrestles with the goal of trying to get a computer to process human speech or to get it to translate from one language into another. 11- A group of civil servants are tasked with standardizing language usage in their country, or deciding major aspects of language planning policy that will affect millions of people. 12- A body is set up to produce an international, agreed language for use by air-traffic controllers and pilots, or by marine pilots and ships’ captains. 13- A zoologist investigates the question whether monkeys have language similar to or quite distinct from human language and how it works. 14- A medical sociologist sets out to understand better the changes that occur in people’s use of language as they move into old age. (Michael McCarthy, â€Å"Issues in Applied Linguistics†, Cambridge University Press 2001, page 1-2) In a work called â€Å"Understanding applied linguistics† by Professor V. B Owhotu (2007), the author emphasizes the importance and growing diversity of applied linguistics. In his view applied linguistics is driven first by real world problems rather than theoretical explorations. In other words, the applied linguists should be preoccupied by the following problems: language learning problem (emergence, awareness, rules, use, context, automaticity, attitudes and expertise); language teaching problems (resources, training, practice, interaction, understanding, use, context, inequalities, motivation, outcomes); literacy problems (language and culture); language inequality problems such as ethnicity, class, gender and age; language policy and planning problems (status planning, corpus planning, and ecology of language); Language assessment problems (validity, reliability, usability, responsibility); language use problems (dialects, register, discourse communities, gate-keeping situations, limited access to services); language and technology problems (learning, assessment, access and use); translation and interpretation problem (on-line, off-line, technology assisted); and language pathology problems (aphasia, dyslexia, physical disabilities). Needless to say, it is far beyond my capacity to present an insight to all of these above-mentioned problems. However, in this part of the writing, I would like to take problems of language learning and teaching, translation  and interpretation, and speech-language pathology as examples to demonstrate the point that applied linguistics helps us to find out effective solutions to our practical problems. Researches in language teaching today show that applied linguistics is sometimes used to refer to â€Å"second language acquisitions†, but these are distinct fields, in that second language acquisition involves more theoretical study of the system of language, whereas applied linguistics concerns itself more with teaching and learning. In their approach to the study of learning, applied linguists have increasingly devised their own theories and methodologies, such as the shift towards studying the learner rather than the system of language itself, in contrast to the emphasis within second language acquisition. I shall continue by considering what avenues within linguists suggest themselves for approaching two of the problems relevant to languages teaching. Let us consider problem of teacher trying to understand why learners from the same language background are having difficulty with a particular grammatical structure in English. Potential linguistic questions for the solution of a grammatical problem, as McCarthy shows in â€Å"Issues in applied linguistics†, are: â€Å"What is known about the learner’s first language or any other language they know which might be interfering with their learning of the foreign language? What do grammarians say about this structure? What psychological barriers might be preventing the learning of the structure? Are some structure difficult to learn if they are tackled too early on? Is there an order in which structures are best presented? † (Michael McCarthy, â€Å"Issues in applied linguistics†, page 8). Can linguistics offer an approach or solution to the problem? If so, which branch(es) of linguistic study and by what methods? The answer lies in such linguistics’ components as pragmatics, semantics, syntax. In terms of pragmatics, students sometimes make mistakes in the use of unsuitable sentences in certain contexts that makes listeners misunderstand. Therefore, when teaching English, teachers need not only teach grammar and vocabulary but also teach how to use sentences in suitable contexts; e. g.  teaching students how and when to say thank you or apologize. In terms of syntax, the most popular mistakes students make are: when making sentences students often translate word by word as the result of their habit of mother tongue (e. g. I have a cat black); combining words incorrectly to produce phrases (e. g. â€Å"a high man† instead of â€Å"a tall man†); the agreement between words in a sentence (e. g. S and V, tenses). In these cases, possibly effective solutions for teachers are: teachers need to teach students how to combine words correctly according to English grammatical rules; they should teach words in contexts. Teachers might also apply semantic knowledge to deal with learners’ mistakes. That is when teaching students a word which has many different meanings, they should teach the meanings related to the context, situation; wishing to talk about a meaning of the word, we may use different synonyms or antonyms; when teaching students how to translate the sentences or the texts into learners’ mother tongue, we should teach students to combine the meaning of English words and the meaning of their mother tongue to have a good translation. It could be confirmed that any problems in language learning and teaching might be solved with application of linguistics, and knowledge about language plays or could play a major role in language teaching and learning. In translation and interpretation area, applied linguistics can also be shown with effective applications in solving problems. In an article titled â€Å"Linguistics and Applied Linguistics† posted in the website of University of Melbourne, Australia, the author emphasizes an important role of linguistics and applied linguistics in different areas of our life, specially in translation and interpretation area. The article provides clear reasons why linguistic and applied linguistics should be studied by those specializing in translation and interpretation. One of the given reasons is that the skills in need for solving problems are central to the study of linguistics. An evidence for this assumption is clearly shown in the article. That is, â€Å"In a period when Australian culture is coming to term with the need to relate the worldwide mosaic of non-English speaking cultures, and when information and communication are moving to technological centre stage, there is a growing demand for people equipped to analyze language. In fact, an increasing number of employers, ranging from language teachers to engineers of knowledge systems and speech synthesis, from translators to managers to designers of natural-language interfaces for computers, from lexicographers to lawyers to bilingual schools in Aboriginal communities, realize the value of a sound training in Linguistics†. As cited in the article, knowledge in Applied Linguistics will provide us a head start in understanding and orienting us to the area and will give us relevant knowledge and analytical skills. People with a background in Applied linguistics also gain an enhanced understanding of how people learn first, second and foreign languages and of how language is used in the community. These skills will be relevant to those interested in preparing for careers as language teachers, language education and assessment experts, speech pathologists, interpreters and translators, and a variety of jobs in industry where language and communication are issues are of concern. Linguistics and Applied Linguistics provide unique skills in cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication that are helpful in solving problems in translation and interpretation. Speaking of applied computational linguistic, people often mention machine translation, computer – assisted translation, and natural language processing as fruitful areas which have also come to the forefront in recent years. I am going to pick up machine translation as a typical example of applying linguistic knowledge. Machine translation is a form of translation where a computer program analyses the text in one language – the â€Å"source text† – and then attempts to produce another, equivalent text in another language – the target text – without human intervention. Currently the state of machine translation is such that it involves some human intervention, as it requires a pre-editing and a post-editing phase. Note that in machine translation, the translator supports the machine and not the other way around. Nowadays most machine translation systems produce what is called a â€Å"gisting translation† – a rough translation that gives the â€Å"gist† of the source text, but is not otherwise usable. However, in fields with highly limited ranges of vocabulary and simple sentence structure, for example weather reports, machine translation can deliver useful results. It is often argued that the success of machine translation requires the problem of natural language understanding to be solved first. However, a number of heuristic methods of machine translation are also used, including: lexical lookup methods, grammar based methods, semantics based methods (knowledge-based machine translation), statistical methods, example based methods, dictionary-entry based methods, linguistic rule based methods. Generally, rule-based methods parse a text, usually creating an intermediary, symbolic representation, from which the text in the target language is generated. These methods require extensive lexicons with morphologic, syntactic, and semantic information, and large sets of rules. Statistical-based and example-based methods avoid manual lexicon building and rule-writing and instead try to generate translations based on bilingual text corpora, such as the Canadian Hansard corpus, the English-French record of the Canadian parliament. Where such corpora are available, impressive results can be achieved translating texts of a similar kind, but such corpora are still very rare. Given enough data, most machine translation programs work well enough for a native speaker of one language to get the approximate meaning of what is written by the other native speaker. The difficulty is getting enough data of the right kind to support the particular method. The large multilingual corpus of data needed for statistical methods to work is not necessary for the grammar based methods, for example. But then, the grammar methods need a skilled linguist to carefully design the grammar that they use. Generally speaking, application of knowledge from linguistics and applied linguistics benefits the practice of language teaching and learning, translation and interpretation. Linguistic theory has also provided a rich knowledge base for application in speech language pathology. First of all, linguistic approaches to aphasia are aimed at providing well-motivated descriptions for patterns of dissociation in aphasia; unifying diverse phenomena in normal and abnormal language under a single account; constraining competing accounts within linguistic theory. As cited by Roman Jakobson on the role of linguistics in research on aphasia (1971, p.39-40), â€Å"the application of purely linguistic criteria to the interpretation and classification of aphasia facts can contribute substantially to the science of language and language disturbances, provided that linguists remain as careful and cautious when dealing with psychological and neurological data as they have been in their traditional field†. He provides some linguistic approaches to aphasia such as: first of all, pathologists or clinicians should be familiar with the technical terms and devices of the medical disciplines dealing with aphasia; then, they must submit the clinical case reports to thorough linguistic analysis; and further, they should themselves work with aphasic patients in order to approach the cases directly and not only through prepared records which are quite differently conceived and elaborated. As we know, phonological theories have also provided frameworks for the description of the speech of unintelligible children in terms of coherent phonological systems, thus facilitating logical goal-setting for intervention. In this part, I might give an example of clinical application. Clinical linguistics entails the application of linguistics to speech-language pathology. This involves treating individuals whose linguistic development is atypical or impaired. This branch of applied linguistics may also involve treatment of specific language impairment, where one aspect of language develops exceptionally. Phonological disorder is a typical problem of people with speech-language pathology. Some children learning a language have difficulties at the phonological level of language acquisition, including problems with knowledge of phonetic segments and phonological constraint, and how that knowledge is implemented in speech production. These problems result in impaired intelligibility and most often difficulty in other language domains such as lexical and syntactic development. In addition, they may lead to later problems in developing literacy. Research in speech production disorders had little concern with the nature of phonology. Rather, children who used few speech sounds or used them incorrectly were studied to determine if they had problems with sensory, cognitive, motor, or perceptual tasks. A speech sound production problem was presumed to be a peripheral motor problem. After all, speech pathology and linguistics have, as sciences, experienced a parallel development over the past years. Although these disciplines have traditionally been separated, they have common areas of concern, and there are indications of a growing interest on the part of speech pathologists in such linguistic subfields as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and neurolinguistics. Speech and hearing publications are paying attention to theoretical and methodological linguistic models, and descriptions of communication disorders are using linguistic paradigms as a basis. Given the interest of speech pathology in linguistics, there is both an obligation and an opportunity for linguists to define new roles for themselves within speech pathology. This requires the identification of common areas and methods by which the linguist can adapt linguistic concerns so that they are meaningful to the speech pathologist. Areas of common interest include communication disorders, phonetics, language acquisition, and language variation. Linguists may have to expand their data base to include the particular interests of speech pathology; they may need background information in areas not traditionally stressed in linguistics; and they must understand the goals of speech pathology as a professional field. Needless to say, what have been mentioned above may not enough to get an insight in application of linguistic and applied linguistic knowledge in solving practical problems. The writing, as being said in the very beginning part, just provides my personal comment on the given statement; therefore, in order to get insight in the statement, there should be further studies on it. There should be other different approaches in analyzing or understanding it, too. I myself believe that possible findings of potential studies on this viewpoint will be very meaningful and surely benefit the practice of applied linguistics in solving practical problems. REFERENCE 1) Alan Davies (2007), An Introduction to Applied Linguistics: From Practice to Theory, Edinburgh University Press. 2) Alan Davies and Catherine Elder (2004), The Handbook of Applied Linguistics, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing 3) Roman Jakobson (1968), Child Language, Aphasia and Phonological Universals, Mouton Publishers. 4) Roman Jakobson (1959), On Linguistic Aspects of Translation, essay retrieved from http://www. scribd. com/doc/23687802/Linguistic-Aspects-of-Translation-Jakobson 5) Michael McCarthy (2001), Issues in Applied Linguistics, Cambridge University Press. 6) V. B. Owhotu (2007), Understanding Applied Linguistics, University of Lagos Press. 7) Phillip Shaw, An Overview of Applied Linguistics, video retrieved from www. sportballa. com/video-gallery/Applied-linguistics 8) Kamil Wisniewski (2007), Applied linguistics, article retrieved from http://www. tlumaczenia-angielski. info/linguistics/applied-linguistics. htm. ———————– Linguistics By components of language Phonetics (sounds) Syn j C tax (grammar) Lexis (words) Semantics (meanings) Pragmatics (uses) Discourse (connected texts) By areas studied Comparative linguistics Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Historical linguistics Theoretical linguistics Applied Linguistics.

Leadership styles Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership styles - Coursework Example 669). In this context, this paper will look into the different types of leadership theories and assess it by looking into some empirical studies relevant to the impact of leadership on the development of faculty members. In the end, hopefully, this paper may help gain an understanding of the different identified types of leadership. The Different Kinds of Leadership In order to understand further the concept of leadership, scholars have continuously defined, examine and refine the concept (Yukl, 2006). As a result of these scholarly endeavours, several types of leadership and leadership theories have been developed (Brinia, 2012). Some of the types of leadership are the following: â€Å"Great Man† Theory. This theory assumes that leadership is inherent to the person. This means that capacity in becoming a leader is naturally inborn in the person. Thus, giving validity to the claim â€Å"a person is born leader† (Brinia, 2012). This theory is also known as the superhero theory. Moreover, the theory refers only to ‘men’ as it looks into the ‘feats’ of illustrious men in history such as Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Steve Jobs and the likes. As such, it presents the notion that great leadership entails having the right man for the job. However, this theory is criticised by Spencer (1896) when he claimed that leaders are not borne but are themselves product of their society. Trait Theory. This theory is comparable with the ‘great man theory’. It holds the view that ‘natural leaders’ possess certain attributes that distinguish them from the rest. These attributes include â€Å"intelligence, alertness, insight, responsibility, initiative, persistence, self-confidence and sociability† (Northhouse, 2006, pp. 16). These characteristics provide some advantages to leaders over non-leaders, thus making them suitable as leaders. However, this theory has been questioned on the premise that there are people who possess these attributes but are not leaders. Contingency Theory. This theory holds that leadership effectiveness depends on the various factors influencing not only the organisational conditions but also the leadership situation. These factors may include environment, organisational structure, subordinates and tasks (Brinia, 2012). In effect, this theory presupposes that there is no universal form leadership but that effective leadership behoves the coming together of the leadership condition, subordinates trust to the leaders and the tasks to be performed. Nonetheless, this theory fails to identify or explain why a leader is effective in a particular situation. Situational Theory. This theory maintains that different situations require different kinds of leadership. In other words, an effective leader matches his/her style of leadership depending on the situation and abilities and commitment of his/her subordinates (Northhouse, 2006). From this perspective, the flexibil ity of the leader to adapt to the situation is paramount in addressing issues. As such, the leader must know when to be directive or supportive, thus, matching the needs and demands of the situation and the subordinates. However, this theory is plagued by concerns pertinent to ambiguity of the concept of commitment and the model of subordinates (Northhouse, 2006). In addition, question regarding the validity of the theory is also raised (Northhouse,

Why the Drinking Age Should be Lowered Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why the Drinking Age Should be Lowered - Essay Example The need is to comprehend how the drinking age has to be adjusted in the first place. There are different societies in the world which offer a host of explanations in the wake of the drinking age. However, what remains to be seen is how well this age represents the true mindsets of the people who are actually bringing about a positive change to begin with. The drinking age can only be seen as a number and nothing else. Drinking age should also be lowered because there is no need to set an age at all. When the teenagers have intellect to pick and choose pastimes of their own, then there is no use to ask them to change their habits or to follow a certain age category before drinking. Hence there comes the equation of the drinking age getting lowered and that too for all the right reasons. As the drinking age has been established in the Western countries, it would only be a given to comprehend how it will be seen within the Eastern nations as well. But then again, the bottom line remain s embedded in the fact that drinking age has to be brought down because the kids of today are no more the kids that used to be in the yesteryears. Drinking age must also be lowered because it is just a figure that needs to be followed. The young ones do not care what age they should be before they can start drinking. It is important for them to drink and feel good about their own selves.

The Idea of Realism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Idea of Realism - Essay Example The essay "The Idea of Realism" will examine the idea of realism in the context of modern art. Realism is an artistic movement that was popular in France. In attempting to ‘accurately’ reflect life in all its objective detail, artists taking a Realist approach often worked to find the most ‘common’ people of the fields and villages and depicted them in their most humble and menial tasks. The ideas behind realism can be better understood by comparing the writing of two influential artists of the period, Gustave Courbet and Ferdnand Leger. Gustave Courbet held that â€Å"painting is an essentially concrete art and can only consist in the representation of real and existing things†. The chief technical concern of Courbet seemed to be an abandonment, to some extent, of the ‘rules’ of art in favor of a more natural flow of line and form. By retaining these rough elements of the painting, Courbet felt he was more accurately representing the mom ent and the emotion of the moment during which the piece was created or the scene was witnessed. As he continued to attempt to portray the ‘real’ of life by focusing upon the humble peasantry, he began to identify himself more and more from their perspective. By 1850, his ideas regarding what was real were becoming more defined as he wrote to a friend, â€Å"†¦ in our so very civilized society it is necessary for me to live the life of a savage. I must be free even of governments. The people have my sympathies, I must address myself to them directly†.

Project management and implantation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Project management and implantation - Assignment Example They include an extensive range of apartments, holiday bungalows as well as lodges at a diversity of holiday resorts as well as fascinating places. They encompass offices on high streets in a lot of cities plus include a premium and across the world popularity. The business is as well running an efficient computerized system for management and handling of the business operations and various tasks. The management of the France Vacancies (FV) has decided to enhance the services and handling of business in a much improved means. In this scenario the business of France Vacancies (FV) is going to establish a web based system for the enhanced and efficient management of the customer requisites for the booking. This research report is about the comprehensive analysis for the establishment of the France Vacancies (FV) online booking or reserving system. This online booking system will offer effective means and facilities for the booking of online seats and quick handling of the customer’s complaints. France Vacancies has attained enormous business progress. These encompass improved market arrangement to the business as well as its general operating framework. As business has achieved a number of improvements, a lot of business problems and a number of business complexities have been emerged. The current arrangement of the France Vacancies business is based on the manual system for the request processing as well as a little bit implementing database system facility. However in case of present age of the Internet the business requires huge support for the availability of an online business platform that can effectively support the business operations through the available internet connection that is available 24 hours and 7 days a week. However the present system is creating considerable problems for the handling of customer requests and various needs of

Family Involvement Model in Early Childhood Education Essay

Family Involvement Model in Early Childhood Education - Essay Example The primary teachers of children are the parents or guardians, and the primary school is the home. Education starts at home. The home is the foundation of learning. Even when the children are going to school, the family continues to support learning at home. Learning does not begin and end at school. It is just where formal learning takes place and is just one of the venues for educating children. The family is a part of the community. Support of the community in the Learning Programs of children makes education more effective. An active community working hand in hand with families creates an enriching learning environment and a continuing learning venue from school for the children. Let us first define the period of early childhood. It begins from birth or infancy to age five. This is the period when major transformations take place: physical, social, intellectual, emotional and mental. It is the time when basic skills are learned which forms part of the learning foundation for use in later years. Basic skills include learning how to count, distinguishing letters, maintaining attention and remembering experiences. This is the phase when children develop their self-concept, which is influenced in great part by what they see and experience at home. They also develop their self-esteem and start to make friends at this period. ... The very basic theory deals with the basic needs of children and how these are met. Where does learning come into the hierarchy of needs and what are the prerequisite needs to make the process of education more effective are questions addressed by this theory. These theories espouse the importance of social interaction in the development of children. The theories stress the effects of experiences from these social interactions as major factors in the habits, attitudes, views and the eventual learning success or failure of children. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is the most basic theory in a child's development. This is important so we may understand the priorities of children and the possible distractions they may have to learning. In psychology, it is a motivational theory where needs of people are placed in a hierarchy starting with the most basic needs at the base (Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs). Abraham Maslow introduced the idea that the actions of people are determined by specific goals that they want to attain. A behavior is directed toward the satisfaction of a need. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is often represented by a pyramid with five levels. The first four levels are concerned with physiological needs and the topmost remaining level is concerned with growth needs. The premise is that the needs at the bottom or at the base have to be satisfied first before meeting the topmost need. Physiological needs like food, water, air, sleep and sex are at the bottom followed by Safety needs like health, property, e mployment and environmental security. The third level is Belongingness which includes family, friendship and love. Esteem including respect, self-esteem, accomplishments and confidence comprise the fourth level.

Critical Review of the Film Slumdog Millionaire Essay

Critical Review of the Film Slumdog Millionaire - Essay Example These themes underscore the overlapping narratives in the film Slumdog Millionaire, 2008, a British production with Indian cast and crew, using both English and Hindi, with English subtitles for international viewing. The film is directed by Danny Boyle, produced by Christian Colson, screenplay written by Simon Beaufoy, and based on Vikas Swarup’s book Q & A (IMDb, 2012). It won eight out of ten Academy Awards, 2009, along that of ‘Best Picture’, as well as several other international awards (Paul, 2011). Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to critically review the film â€Å"Slumdog Millionaire†. It will be argued that Orientalist discourses circulate in the film, and media representations of cultural images influence how people identify themselves and their place in the world. Thus, globalization and the politics of identity creation, as well as spatial and economic inequality in an increasingly interconnected world will be examined. Globalizat ion and the Politics of Identity Creation in â€Å"Slumdog Millionaire† The world today is distinguished by a new role for the imagination in social life. Thus, focusing on the image, the imagined and the imaginary, Appadurai (2004) indicates that critical changes are emerging in global cultural processes, with the imagination becoming part of social practice, enabling negotiation between action and globally defined fields of possibility. Film-makers attempt to please the audience by imaginatively using the cultural mythology of the era. â€Å"Myths are transformations of fundamental conflicts or contradictions that in reality cannot be resolved† (Paul, 2011, p.451). Similar to dreams functioning as wish fulfillments in several cases, films provide wish-fulfilling solutions to human dilemmas. This forms the main theme of the film Slumdog Millionaire, in which the 18-year-old Jamal Malik, a Muslim youth played by new comer Dev Patel, is about to win a jackpot of 20 mill ion rupees on the Hindi version of Who Wants to be a Millionaire. However, during a break before the final round, convinced that this uneducated boy must have cheated, the quiz master gets Jamal taken away to be interrogated by the inspector of police. The film uses the questions on the quiz show that Jamal miraculously answers, to reveal his life story in flash backs. He answers each question correctly due to specific incidents in his past that coincidentally gave him the required information or knowledge (Gilbey, 2009). Media representation of cultural images influences how people identify themselves and their place in the world. According to Peralta (2010), art, storytelling and history are inter-connected with cultural identity. The medium of cinema is a form of art which narrates a story, and it is directly related to cultural influences. Cinema creates identity-formation particularly in the contemporary globalized world. Stories convey cultural memories besides relaying morali ty, judgment, history, and life lessons. Further, â€Å"like art, stories can create a place where we begin to understand or make sense of our world† (Peralta, 2010, p.27). Narratives are used to explain oneself to others, and in turn help in understanding the other. With the increasing interconnectedness of globalization, the media representatio

Value & Risk Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Value & Risk Management - Assignment Example Value drivers can be defined as elements within a project which improve the product quality, and also minimise costs. These drivers become essential during project management as they provide assistance to auditors on possible value adding elements. The utilisation of value drivers remains fundamental to successful completion of many development projects, within the construction industry. These elements remain fundamental towards ensuring projects remain within their allocated budgetary requirements, and produce satisfactory outcomes. Several value drivers can be identified for the project as defined below Ensure effective project management and delivery Achievement of required financial targets Minimising operation and maintenance costs, and environmental impact for the building Complying with various third party requirements Effective project management Effective project management process involves proper utilisation of available resources as a method of minimising wastage at differ ent project development stages. Effective management remains the most fundamental element for ensuring efficacy in development projects. This involves the proper utilisation of available resources in meeting the requirements of the project as defined in the planning stages. This value driver remains focused at ensuring projects achieves excellence through compliance with required project outcomes. Ensuring presence and application of this value driver remains fundamental to successful project completion. The incorporation of effective management begins with the appointment of a project team. In ensuring effectiveness, the management team should be selected from individuals possessing the essential skills and expertise in the construction industry. The utilisation of independent client advisors could be applied where the team lacks experts in a specified profession, While selecting individuals with essential expertise and skills, a consideration for cost should also be factored to en sure functionality of the team. The team must become fully engaged into the project from the beginning stages. Efficacy in the management skills of the team should be displayed through coordination, integration and communication among the team members, consequently ensuring the team functions as a single unit. Other than communication among team members, external communication with stakeholders remains a fundamental component for ensuring success in development projects. Management teams should involve users, contractors and all members involved in the supply chain delivery continuously, to get their expertise and opinions on the project. The management team should develop an execution plan, which should act as a guideline during the project lifetime. The effectiveness of the team remains the main reason behind utilising a project management team, fully engaged in the operations of the project. The effectiveness should be measured according to the desired industry standards, develop ed by regulatory organisations. Compliance to these regulatory requirements remains a key performance indicator

Africa’s growing concern Essay Example for Free

Africa’s growing concern Essay Whoever ignites the flames of hate has succeeded considerably. Hatred has become a way of life for many people around the world. People envy other people and create hatred to those of better lives. But no human being is prepared for what the African continent actually reveals. The persecution of unwanted individuals is prevalent in this part of the earth. Poverty hounds Africa no end. The life there is very hard and disturbing. The place is filled with chaos and turmoil. No stability is in sight. The entire world is currently alarmed over the high incidence of death within its population. Countries over the years have pledged support to the stagnant economy of the African nation. All means of contribution have been given to the poor continent. But in spite of the continued aid, there seems to be no hope of rising within the nation. Africa has shoved itself into a hole so deep that the possibility of becoming buried is never a remote idea in the future. Men, women and children agonize over their situations. Food and resources are hard to come by. Thousands die of starvation annually. But more than that, countless people become victims of unnecessary violence. World leaders and governments around the globe have, time and again, met and discuss the events in Africa numerous times. Like a disease, the social demise of its population has been a primary concern for many nationalities worldwide. People are dying every minute. The media has played a vital role in revealing the abuses and brutalities of people. All eyes are focused on this place where individuals have disregarded the value of human life. The carnage continues, and will continue unless a swift and effective solution will be unveiled. There is a sense of urgency for the world’s leading governments to address the destruction of human dignity in Africa. However, in spite of the launching of countless humanitarian missions to solve the nation’s woes, death and suffering lingers on. Billions have been spent on relief operations but the social problem remains undefeated. The casualty toll piles up. The killing spree goes unsuppressed. And the rest of the world watches dumbfounded. It only shows that governments and its people are not doing enough to find answers to the African problem. Although food and the lack of basic needs is the primary concern among the African people, it is violence that must be silenced. Several decades of gun running and smuggling within the continent have only brought death to many citizens. As long as the armaments keep on coming, peace will remain to be an elusive and distant dream. The social instability in the African nation is about power. Individuals and their clans grapple for control. Gaining that momentum to hold every move in the tumultuous society means having the arms and weapons to subject everyone to their every word. The world is stretching its influence into every corner of the continent. But sadly, the troubled nation drives off the chance and rare opportunity to rebuild its communities. It is ironic that a very poor place can summon the strength to annihilate all intervening parties out of their motherland. Events are bleak. The panic button has been set. But with all the dangers and the deaths, Africans have little regard for the needs of their nation. Women and children go elsewhere to find peace. War escalates and the streets are stained with blood. If the world is keen on finding the answers to the growing social menace in Africa, analysts should dig deeper to gain a full and total understanding of the situation among its people. The United Nations must be aware to the motives and intentions of the African people. All along, the entire globe has only addressed the needs of the poor continent. The real reason for the chaos remains undetermined, and therefore, unsolved. Turmoil will continue to rob the African nation of its dream of peace and stability. With a disorganized crowd and a selfish government, senseless killings and looting will be around for a long time.

Dog Food Essay Example for Free

Dog Food Essay Dogs are probably the most common and numerous pet in World, and Mexico is not the exception for this rule. The purpose of this work is to analyze the characteristics of the demand for the dog food business in Mexico. This business has shown a CAGR of 3% during the last six years. Dog Food business is divided in three categories based on food type: Dry Dog Food, Wet Dog Food and Treats / Mixers. The most important category is Dry Dog Food with 89% far followed by Wet Dog Food with the 6%. There is another category division based on price: Super Premium, Premium and Standard. In terms of Market players there are 13 competitors in this category: The most important producers are EFFEM with 48% of market share and Nestle with 21%. Regarding brands, the most important are: Pedigree: 33%, Dog Chow 7%, Perfect Fit 5% and Eukanuba with the 5%. DogFood Brand Shares % 2008 DogFoodCompanyShares % 2008 Methodology For the analysis of the dog food market, it was necessary to do a research for the market trends (increase/decrease of dog population, education of the dog owners about benefits of dog food); the view of the dog owners about the dog food and its presentations, prices and quality. As well as the willingness of the dog owners to continue buying the dog food in the changing circumstances of the market (price raising, economic crisis, market substitutes, etc. ). The steps followed to achieve this objective are: 1. Bibliographic investigation of the market size for dog food in the Mexican market, the view of the dog owners, the companies producing dog food, price, substitutes. 2. Comparison of the indicated characteristics through and between years 3. Interpretation of the collected data to observe the market behavior for this particular industry, when faces changes in the dog owner view of the market, crisis or rising of prices. 4. Determination of the challenges faced by the industry. 5. Conclusions. Determinants of Demand: 1. -Price As up year 2008, the demand felt down 21% in comparison to previous year. Among the main reasons for this fall are: The row material cost of producers increased due to the Mexican currency devaluation. This fact â€Å"forced† the manufacturers to transfer the cost increase to the consumers. Since this market is considered an Oligopoly, the demand is elastic to the price changes. In addition, it is easy to find substitutes products; such as: Human food leftovers. The outcome of the described situation pushed the demand down. The â€Å"Mon and Pop† distribution channel leveraged the circumstances and offered the market Dog food in bulk. This strategy allowed them to maintain their sales in spite of the reduced total market. As a result, the producers decided to launch smaller size presentations, which in the long run stopped the sales fall, reducing the sales fall from 21% in 2008, down to only 3% in 2009. . -Marketing Initiatives -Dog owner emotional engagement fuels potential market growth Manufactures realized that the ratio of dog per household was still low, making evidence that there was still a significant growth potential. As a consequence, dog food producers encouraged diverse nonprofit associations to promote emotional engagement to the dog wellness. Dog owners started to care more about: Nutrition, health care and dog pampering. Therefore, the manufacturers found new market niches for new products, such as super premium brands focused on health enhancement or treats to pamper the dog. The current dog owning households ratio in Mexico has grown from 38. 3% in 2004 up to 40. 5% into to 2009. In order to exploit this booming market, different efforts have been done by producers, launching marketing campaigns such as: â€Å"Adopta un perro†. Awareness of Dog Food benefits In addition, manufacturers realized that the ratio of dog food prepared vs. none prepared was too low in Mexico. Therefore, manufacturers began to develop marketing strategies in order to create a higher awareness of dog food benefits. These strategies were mainly implemented through: ) TV advertising campaigns Emotional situations between owner and pet were exploited by producers to encourage pet care i. e. EFFEMS Perfect fit showing a situation suggesting that the dog wants a balance life, such as the owner enjoys. b) Point of Purchase material. Additional exhibition at key seller â€Å"hot spots† were implemented to promote the different products benefits i. e. Hill Pet Nutrition, w hich sells only through veterinary sale points, spread out brochures in the veterinary clinics and pet stores. c) Consumer Promotions Producers decided to increase sales volume in the short term by encourage the consumer through give away attractive items for each product bough i. e. Dog Chow promotion in which a dog bed was gave away when customer purchased a package of four kg and above; in a similar promotion, premium brand Beneful offered a free dog bowl. d) Sponsorships Producers developed different sponsorship programs to increment brand awareness i. e. â€Å"Incredible dog challenge†. e) Product Innovation In order to maintain, and even increase profit margin, producers improved the food formulations and packages. I-e. (Nestle’s effort to re-launch Campeon brand with a different formula using the slogan of â€Å"looking similar to human food†. All these efforts helped to reduce the shortfall of 8 pps showed between 2007 and 2008 down to only 1 pps between 2008 and 2009. Conclusions The market of dog food has changed in last few years, due of the changes in the perception of the pets inside families, mostly in developed countries. Dogs are the most common and numerous pets, and nowadays are treated as another member inside the family. Dog owners pamper their dogs, and care about the nutrition and general wellbeing of their animals. One of the findings about this market is that it has an elastic demand, strongly dependent of the income of the families in Mexico; as income decreases, the demand for dog food decreases as well. Besides, the dog food in Mexican market has one mayor (and almost free) substitute: the human food leftovers. Commonly, the families, mostly the low income ones, feed their dogs with the food they don’t use, or the parts of the meat markets that is not sold for human consumption. Because of that elastic demand, the industry had the need to change the ways producers do business. First, market players need ongoing innovation to adapt themselves to the changing needs of the market, such as: New and smaller size presentations, sales and marketing promotions, effective campaigns of education on how to feeding dogs with specialized and prepared food. These initiatives, along with dog adoption programs were key elements to increase market penetration. Currently, the industry of dog food is facing new challenges as low recovery of world economy, need of new formulation and customized and specialized products (aged dogs, puppies, small breeds, active dogs and sedentary dogs) demand from producers more effective sales promotions to change the mindset of the Mexican consumer about feeding dogs with the â€Å"leftovers†.

Taxonomy System and Linnaean System

Taxonomy System and Linnaean System Since the early life of human beings, we have grouped organisms into classifications for many different reasons related to science. The classification systems are very important because it allows scientists to easily identify and group organisms (socratic.org, 2017). Scientist usually group them by judging the degrees of their similarities and differences that are seen (study.com, 2017), Organism groups have been organised into groups by using systems called the taxonomy system and Linnaean system but changes have occurred over time and this has all been modernized into the phylocode since early 2000s. This first system that will be explained is the Linnaean system, this was developed in the early 18th century by Carl Linnaeus which he published a system for classifying living things but Linnaeus was the first scientist to develop a naming system or structure that helped convey information easily about what the species name is but also its closest relatives. These classifications were further modernized into orders such as taxonomy and including domain phyla domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species (Mnemoic-device.com, 2017). Before Carl Linnaeus came up with a standard naming system he created names for each individual species which were often confusing and enormously long and hard to remember. Carl Linnaeus then decided it would be better to name these species in Latin and would have two parts to the name and this was a two-part system which was named the binomial nomenclature but again this is the old system. Linnaeus is classified nature into a hierarchy, Carl proposed that there were three broad groups and these were called kingdoms. Then into which the whole of nature could fit, these kingdoms were animals, plants, and minerals. He divided each of these kingdoms into classes. (Study.com, 2017) These were further divided into genera and then species. We still use this system today, but society today has made some changes. The hierarchy of biological classifications is where all life can be classified into increasingly specific groups by sorting life into three domains which are Archaea, eubacteria and eukaryote-but the system ends with the most specific category which is the individual species has its own name. The Phylo code starts with the theoretical foundation but the phylo is the process of a naming system but only names the clades which a clade is a group of organisms that consists of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants instead of naming each individual specie a different name. The naming of the clade in these species are defined in types although the aim of the new classification system is to show clear communication of naming and efficient storage of biological information but again the phylo only governs by the clade names. The phylo system is and independent of taxomic rank but also the phylogenetic system categorisers species. clades but are not in ranks but are kinds of biological entitles where species is a segment of population and the clade is in a monophyletic group of species or organisms.( The monophyletic is a taxon. A taxon is any group of organisms that is given a formal taxonomic name, A monophyletic taxon is one that includes a group of organisms descended from a single ancestor. whereas a polyphyletic taxon is composed of unrelated organisms descended from more than one ancestor. (Mun.ca, 2017) Taxonomy is used as the prime base for the phylo system and Linnaeus system, taxonomy is the process of explaining and classifying organisms and includes all plants, animals and microorganism in the world. Taxonomy explains and shows what species are compatible to reproduce or interbreed and which cant together but for example a horse cant interbreed with a bear but species of animals that are in the same group can like a tiger and jaguar. The genus is a taxonomic rank which is lower than family in the Linnaeus system and higher than the species. (Em.wikipedia.org, 2017) The genus is a more general taxonomic category than species is (etc. generic name of a lion is pantherea Leo and the pantherea represents a tiger, snow leopard, jaguar and leopard but Leo represents the type of animal but that its in this certain cat family).The species is the last rank division, in this case named epithet. This is the second part of the scientific name and refers to one species within the genus, Species is commonly a group of organisms that have similar anatomical characteristics and reproducers that can successfully interbreed to produce off spring. Both the phyllo and Linnaeus have the objective to name species and give society and scientists a greater understanding of them but also they both use taxonomy as their base (Ca1-tls.edcdn.co, 2017). The two classification systems both use precedence and clear order of preference to determine the correct name of taxon synonyms, homonyms exist in both systems but also systems are ranked through the taxonomy system. Phylo code is a more fitting to the future of science and will develop as time goes but Linnaean system is no longer an easier source to use because Phylogenetic classification has two main advantages over the Linnaean system. First, The phylogenetic classification tells you something important about the organism: its evolutionary history. Second, phylogenetic classification does not attempt to rank organisms ,Linnaean classification ranks groups of organisms artificially into kingdoms, phyla, orders, etc. (Evolution.berkly.edu, 2017) The linnean system was a great platform for biologists and scientists but now has become formally invalid due to the phylo system having a greater advantage and enhanced system.

World War Two and Its Impact on the Role of American Women in Society E

World War II opened a new chapter in the lives of Depression-weary Americans. The United States of America had an unusual importance in the war, it had been spared the physical destruction that had taken place throughout the world. Americans on the home front did not see the fighting and brutality as other countries experienced it. However, the events and changes on the home front due to the World War transformed America. One of the greatest conversions was that of the American woman. Women around the country were transformed from the average house wife into a person with a voice and most importantly a purpose. For the first time women were working in the industries of America. As husbands and fathers, sons and brothers shipped out to fight in Europe and the Pacific, millions of women marched into factories, offices, and military bases to work in paying jobs and in roles reserved for men in peacetime. Women were making a living that was not comparable to anything they had seen before. They were dependent on themselves; for once they could support the household. Most of the work in industry was related to the war, such as radios for airplanes and shells for guns. Peggy Terry, a young woman who worked at a shell-loading plant in Kentucky, tells of the money that was to be made from industrial work (108). â€Å"We made a fabulous sum of thirty-two dollars a week. To us that was an absolute miracle. Before that, we made nothing (108)." Sarah Killingsworth worked in a defense plant. " All I wanted to do was get in the factory, because they were payin more than what I'd been makin. Whi ch was forty dollars a week, which was pretty good considering I'd been makin about twenty dollars a week. When I left Tennessee I was only makin two-fifty a week, so that was quite a jump (114)." Terry had never been able to provide for herself as she was able to during the war. " Now we'd have money to buy shoes and a dress and pay rent and get some food on the table. We were just happy to have work (108).† These women exemplify the turn around from the peacetime to wartime atmosphere on the home front. The depression had repressed them to poverty like living conditions. The war had enabled them to have what would be luxury as compared to life before. As women began to enter the male work force and achieve pride and an income, they became oblivious to the war... ...he was not on the home front, she was a WAC officer. Never before this time had women been given the chance to help defend this country as much as during WWII, non the less a black woman. It was a major break through. The help that Fraser provided towards the war cause enabled her to achieve the GI Bill. She used it in her full advantage (128). â€Å"I used part of the GI Bill to go to Northwestern and then full time to Roosevelt U. (128).† Never before this time had women across the country been given the chance to express themselves and hold responsibilities outside their own households. They felt that they were needed and enjoyed their ability to contribute to the war effort. They were given opportunities to prove to the male society that they could be independent and financially secure on their own. These new opportunities were not only for the white women of the population but also the blacks. World War Two acted as a catalyst for change for the women of the United States. Many feel that it was the beginning of a whole new era for the Women of America. Work Cited Terkel, Studs.  "The Good War": an Oral History of World War Two. New York: Pantheon, 1984. Print.

Discuss the idea of innocence and experience in Mansfield’s work. Essay

Discuss the idea of innocence and experience in Mansfield’s work. The ideas of innocence and experience are frequent themes that come up in Mansfield’s stories. These ideas often come across in themes such as loss of sexual innocence – ‘The Little Governess’; loss of innocence through awareness of mortality and death – ‘The Garden Party’, ‘Her First Ball’. Themes of aging and gaining of experience as time passes are also suggested. The woman in ‘The Woman at the Store’, we can that she has already lost her innocence, whereas in the other stories we see the point where characters have lost their innocence. ‘The Little Governess’ is about a young, inexperienced and vulnerable woman who gets sexually exploited in a â€Å"world full of old men with twitching knees†. Connotations of the title already suggest that she is a naà ¯ve girl with no experience. She is described as the â€Å"little† governess – suggesting she is a naà ¯ve, innocent, vulnerable girl who is diminutive with no experience. Also, people that became governesses in those times were usually bright but inexperienced middle class women. The typical language she uses sets up her innocence and naivety. Use of German and French dialect expressions highlights the novelty of European travel for the governess and her innocence and naivety .She is described as â€Å"quite white, with big round eyes†, â€Å"long lashes†, â€Å"soft beauty†, these descriptions again emphasize how childish and innocent she is. Use of foreshadowing is used to develop themes and is quite obvious regarding loss of sexual innocence. There is foreshadowing at the start â€Å"I always tell my girls that it’s better to mistrust people at first rather than trust them†, this sets up the atmosphere and giv... ...body suggests she may be envious of him, as he no longer has to worry about anything â€Å"What did garden parties†¦matter to him? He was far from all those things†. It may also suggest her childish inability to accept the finality of death and wants to view it as sleep â€Å"sleeping so soundly†. At this point, Laura has a partial realisation of death’s seriousness. She sees the reality of death, but is unsure of what to do with her new knowledge. The ideas of innocence and experience are reoccurring themes throughout Mansfield’s stories. We come to realize that human emotion and experience is universal, regardless of class distinction. We cannot escape death due to our mortality, thus we must all accept it. Everyone grows to become more experienced over time even though Mansfield sees the loss of innocence and the gain of new experience as a negative process.

Fran Dorn :: Free Essays

Fran Dorn is the host of Literary Visions, a telecourse video. Dorn is an intelligent person with a love for literature and reading. After watching just one of these telecourse videos, I’ve come to learn a lot about Miss Dorn. With that said, I would like to share with you some of the bits and pieces I have come to learn. What kind of person is this Fran Dorn? Do these videos tell you anything about her personal life? Most interestingly, what are her thoughts on literature?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As I sat, notebook and pen in hand, watching these videos, I kept asking myself, â€Å"Who is this person? Is she nice? Mean? Compassionate?† The one thing you could tell about Miss Dorn right away was that she was a very intelligent woman. Dorn read many books, she has a Master’s degree – and that wasn’t the only way you can tell she is an intellectual. The way she talked with such knowledge about literature, and confidence. Miss Dorn graced the television set with such poise. She’s the type of person most people aspire to be.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many things you can learn about Fran Dorn’s personal life. Dorn states that she has her Master’s degree in theater. She also said that she went to a Graduate School in New York for three years. Miss Dorn always loves to read books. She also collected them. Some of the books in her collection include â€Å"Busy Timmy†, and the â€Å"The Velveteen Rabbit†. On the day Dorn graduated from Graduate School, she bought herself a book to celebrate. The book was â€Å"The Velveteen Rabbit†. The store’s clerk asked her if she wanted it wrapped as a gift for someone. She explained it was only for her, and the clerk wrapped it up. Then the clerk stated â€Å"It was indeed a gift, a gift I was giving myself†.

Conflicts in Work Place

Conflicts management in work place OVERVIEW The purpose of this assignment is to critically analyze the conflicts in working place and try to understand organization behavior with respect to conflict effect. I also try to focus whether conflict is necessary or not by using range of theoretical perspectives and ideologies of conflict. INTRODUCTION: Conflicts are unpleasant, but it is a kind of force that ruling almost every aspect of our life. As time passes in every working relationship it is common to produce conflict (John Newstrom 2007, p. 253). Conflict can arise from various sources and directions but it can emerge in short duration of time among people of any level, and it may require proper management. Conflict can be constructive or destructive depending on ability of management. Hence managers should be aware of it and must know when and how to stimulate conflict in better way to resolve from it in time. Conflict is defined as â€Å"[.. a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something the first party cares about† (Huczynski & Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Every organization has some sets of rules for its existence and to stay competent in the market and its survival as they desired. For this organization should be stable, always integrated, well coordinated, order and unanimity. As we know that organization is a place where peo ple work together to achieve a common goal. But to attain the goal everyone has to struggle, cooperate, obey rules, and always communicate with each other to complete the given task in time. But history shows that many organization fallen because of these interpersonal relationships of the people are not productive, cooperative, and satisfying which directly effects the reputation of the organization and creates a big problem for its growth. Many people believe that organization is interfered with conflicts and many other factors such as disintegration, antagonism, frequent changes, and divided loyalties. But it is also seen that people believe conflicts are necessary to perform organization effectively. Let have a close look on conflict in organization and people point of view: WHY CONFLICT ARISE? In any situation conflict can arise between two or more parties when they think opposite and feel themselves in opposition. Conflict can arise due to many factors. For example: To achieve the goal in time different people apply different methods and techniques, but some time because of disagreement among the people due to different experience can produce the conflict. It is an interpersonal process; â€Å"conflicts also arise due to tack inter-dependence, policies, ambiguity of roles and rules, personality differences, ineffective communication, the competition over scarce resources, and underlying differences in attitudes, beliefs, and experiences† (Huczynski & Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Conflict can be functional or dysfunctional; we can consider it constructive or destructive depending on its management. But important question is whether conflict is necessary or not for any organization? Levels of Conflict: In any working place conflict can be possible to occur within an employee, between individuals or groups, and across organizations as they compete. Sources of Conflict: Organizational change, Different sets of values, Threats to status, Contrasting perceptions, Lack of trust, personality clashes, and personality differences. IS CONFLICT NECESSARY EVIL OR NOT: From many decades, there has much debate that concerning whether conflict within the organization is necessary or not. Dean Tjosvold (2008) argued that conflict was inevitable aspect of all organizations; that properly conducted; it lead to a better understanding between individuals, as well as to better ways of working. Since conflict was essential to successful teamwork and organizational effectiveness, it should be welcomed and managed appropriately. In contrast, Carten De Dreu (2008) stated that conflict was always detrimental, and that the research support for the beneficial aspects of workplace conflict was weak. He said that conflict was beneficial in only a very few, specific situations; and that even in thes, it had negative consequences which outweighted the positive ones. He felt that organizations had to make efforts to manage conflict, not because it had positive effects but so as to minimize its negative ones† (BUCHANAN AND HUCZYNSKI, 2010). THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF CONFLICT: According to traditional perceptive conflicts are negative and indicates something is wrong. It must be avoided or eliminate. The contemporary perspective describes conflict as inevitable. It describes that if conflicts are very high or low they have negative consequences which affect the performance of the organization. CONTRASTING VIEWS OF CONFLICT: It is found that there are three views of conflict: positive, negative and ‘balanced’. Positive view: This view consider conflict are positive in organizations, but if it is managed and Considered can be positive and they believe that if the conflict managed and resolution effectively many time we can see constructive outcomes. This helps them to think how they can adopt different process to do things and conflict resolution process is many time seen a stimulus for positive change in the organization. This view tells resolving conflict also help to adapt to changes and it is seen more acceptable (Coiser & Dalton, 1990). Conflict help in decision making process; because it is nature and people have different opinions, thoughts, attitudes and values for any given situation which can be beneficial in making and choosing better idea and decision. ositive view of conflict help us to encourage to work in difference and it tell positive outcomes of conflicts are very beneficial to the organization, it may increase quality of work and personal satisfaction and also increases commitment and motivation to complete the task in time. Negative view: This view considers conflict as negative, it tells that conflict is dangerous and have serious negative effects and may diverts organization goals to achieve and also effect on out psychological wellbeing. This view express that conflict also affect ideas, created tension, increases stress and anxiety. And conflict may be detrimental to individual and group development over period of time. (Baron, R. A. and Richardson, S. R. , Human Aggression, 2nd edition (Plenum Press, New York, 1991). ) ‘Balanced’ view: This view of conflict some time preferable from a managerial perspective. In this approach sometime conflict are destructive and some time they are highly desirable and constructive. But managing conflict is essential for attaining the goal for any manager. TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT: Organization conflict has different definitions and perspectives from many years. One thought of school argued that, conflict must be avoided in order to run the organization effectively, without any malfunctioning within it. This thought called traditional view. Another thought of school argued that conflicts in any organization are natural and inevitable. According to this view conflict is not a evil, but it tells that management should have the ability for improving organizational effectiveness and efficiency. We called this thought behavioral view. Third thought is interactionist approach and it is most recent perspective. This thought of school argues that conflicts are positive and important for any organization. It tells that conflicts are absolutely necessary for improving organization effectiveness and efficiency. (Adapted from: Stephen R. Robbins, Managing Organization Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, 1974). ) THE TRADITIONAL VIEW: In this view, it is assumed that conflict is natural and very bad, it should be avoided and eliminate immediately. There will be always negative impact on organizational performance. And it is believed that organization cannot perform effectively, if the conflicts are not eliminated in time. According to this approach conflicts are harmful and must be avoided. Conflicts can cause violence, destruction, and some time irrationality problems. It is manager responsibility to identify the conflicts if any and try to eliminate it to get rid of problems. This traditional perspective prevailed the management and organizational lit during the late nineteenth century and continued to be mid – 1940s. The Behavioral View: In this behavioral view traditional approach was followed and it is argued that occurrence of conflicts are natural in organizations. But behavioralists argued that conflicts are inevitable they advocated accepting the conflict. The behavioral view explains that conflict cannot be eliminated and they believe that conflict may benefit organization performance. They believe conflicts are inevitable and must resolve in time. The view prevailed management and organization from the late 1940s through the mid-1970s. The Interactionist View: It is the current theoretical perspective on conflict, this approach encourages conflict and they believe that conflict is positive for any organization. In interactionists approach believe that conflict can help to make new ideas, improve intra group cohesiveness, because of different opinion and different experience it help in making better decision in time, and many benefits to the organization. Interactionists perspective encourage functional opposition and necessity of conflict for the effectiveness of the organization. In this view it not only focuses of conflict stimulation but also choose appropriate conflict resolution process by the management. And explains conflict management are the major responsibility for the managers. It is seen that many evidence suggests conflict is necessary and important in organization because it improves the quality of decision making. (Coiser & Schwenk, 1990). Thus I think the major problem is not conflict itself, but the problem is how to manage the conflict in the organization. So we can expect conflict may be result functional or dysfunctional and any one of them have serious effect to achieve the goal in time of any organization. This functional conflict is helpful to nurture the individuals in the working place to improve the creativity, adaption and innovation of the organization. (Thomas, K. W. ‘Conflict and conflict management’, in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, ed. M. D. Dunnette (Rand McNally, Chicago, 1976). ) Because of complacency some organizations are failure, but can be traced back to too much harmony. (Robbins, S. P. , Essentials of Organizational Behavior (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992). ) But in reality most organization try to eliminate any type of conflict because they think elimination of conflict solve the problem and perform organization effectively. But now we can see and argue that functional conflict should be encouraged and dysfunctional conflict should be discouraged. It has spent more than three decades by many researchers, scholar and behavioural scientist to analyze the affects of dysfunctional intergroup conflict in the people who experiences it(Sherif and Sherif, Groups in Harmony and Tension (Harper and Row, New York, 1953). ) -Within groups: it increases the group cohesiveness, able to emphasis on loyalty, rise in desired autocratic leadership and focus on activity; -Between groups: there will be distorted in perceptions, communication is not effective and some time negative stereotyping. View of Conflict can be better understood by different frame of references. Frame of reference: †It is describe as, a person’s perceptions and interpretations of events, and involve assumptions about reality, attitudes towards what is possible, and conventions regarding correct behavior† (Huczynski & Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Contrasting frames of reference: It is seen that literature distinguishes four different frames of reference for conflict, based on differentiation made by Alan Fox. They are unitarist, pluralist, interactionist and radical (Fox, 1966, 1973). All these frames are different from each other but important thing is that none of these are right or wrong. Unitarist: In unitarist frame conflict is seen badly and they think that organizations should be essentially harmonious. Pluralist: In pluralist frame sees that groups in organization have their own interests and organization is collection of groups. Interactionist: This interactionist frame sees conflict as a positive, necessary force for effective performance of any organization; Radical: In radical frame sees conflict as an inevitable outcome of capitalism in any organization. To better understand conflict one should view it as dynamic rather than a static concept and the sequence of conflict stages can be seen as latent, perceived, felt, manifest and after math. (Pondy, L. R. , ‘Organizational conflict: concept and models’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 12 (1967). ) Conflict is inevitable in organizational life and its results can be constructive rather than destructive depending up on how it is managed. If negative effects controlled and can be minimized then positive outcomes may result. Effective conflict management is based in part, on a solid understanding of the different ways that conflict emerges and can be resolved. (Anderson, H. and Kyprianou. 1994. Effective Organizational Behaviour. edn. Oxford: Blackwell ) EFFECTS OF CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATION Conflict in organization has some advantages and few disadvantages if it is not managed. In organization many participants think conflict should be avoided and they often see conflicts are always destructive and it should be eliminated. But in reality it is a limited view, because it is seen that all type of conflict are not destructive, some may result productive and some may nonproductive outcomes. But some participant views on conflicts is positive, they think conflict should be manage effectively and need to search the different ways to results the constructive outcome. Advantage: Conflict produces many benefits; first one, because of it people emotionally aroused with full potential to search and to find better approaches by comparing different approaches which may be useful for get better and desired results. It helps them to boost their creativity and improves their ability for developing new ideas. Thus helps them to experiment different way to achieve the goal. And second benefit is problem can be confronted and solved, so that conflict can be brought to the surface. Disadvantages: Conflict also produces disadvantages if it is not manages properly in time, and many leads to bad results. It also raises many problems like, people may focus on personal issues, they may not cooperate properly which increases stress and people may feel fear of defeating this directly reduces their confidence and motivation level. So it is very important to manage conflict in time. Manager should be aware of conflict and its outcomes and he should apply appropriate conflict resolution strategies, when they found conflict affecting to achieve the goal. Let us see some positive and negative outcome of conflict in working place: According to a survey, many practicing managers spend approximately 20 percent of their time to deal with conflict situation in working environment. Schmidt records some positive and negative outcomes of conflict. (NEWSTROM, W. 2007. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior at Work. 2Th edn. Singapore: McGraw-Hill/Irwin) Positive outcome include: ?Good generation of new ideas ?People try for different and new approaches ?Long-standing problems in any matter can be resolve ?Opportunities for individual views clarification ?It improves creativity and interest of participates ?It gives opportunities for individuals to test their abilities and capacities. Negative outcomes include: ?People fe el fear of defeating and demeaned manner ?Ineffective communication increases the distance between people ? Mistrust and suspicion among the people People concentrate on own interest rather than organization goal ? Reduction in cooperation which effect the teamwork ?And employee turnover increases. CONFLICT OUTCOMES: Conflict in organization may produce four possible outcomes depending on approaches chosen by participates involved. They are as follows: 1. lose-lose 2. Lose-win 3. Win-lose 4. Win-win Participant’s intentions and chosen strategies are the result of conflict outcomes. There are many different conflict resolution strategies developed in the history, but this different strategies designed for participate ntention. CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES: There are five possible conflict resolution strategies available, participant can select any strategy as he need and apply them to reduce/remove the conflict. By using appropriate strategy it is possible to achieve predict able outcome. These strategies are different from each other, they are basically representing different concerns for one’s own desired outcome and for another’s result. These five strategies are as follows: Avoiding- In this conflict is avoided physically and mentally, this approach expects less positive outcome and hence reflects a low concern for either party’s outcomes. Thus it results in lose – lose situation. Smoothing- In this strategy depending on the other party’s interests problems are accommodate. This strategy approach focuses on one’s own detriment by emphasizing on concerns for others which resulting in a lose-win outcome. Forcing- This strategy is depends on using power tactics to achieve the desired goal to win. It depends on authority and aggressiveness in order to attain personal goals at the expense of the concern for the other party. This type of strategy result in a win-lose situation. Compromising- This strategy help to compromise own desires and thought by giving up something to gain something else willingly. It results with no clear-cut outcome. Confronting- This is one kind of strategy which helps to focus conflict directly and solve it by mutual understanding to work it through to a satisfactory resolution. This strategy helps to maximize the chances of achieving both party goals which resulting in a win-win outcome. This strategies are effective can be chosen to win or lose by the participants. It helps to control the conflict and save the time to achieve the goal by reducing adverse harmful effects of conflicts. Avoiding and smoothing approaches are help to manage the conflict and the use of forcing approach may achieve short term goal but fail to achieve stated goal. Compromising approach help to solve conflict but always desired goals cannot be achieved. Confronting approach is the effective strategy which solve conflict problem by facing directly by mutual understanding, hence chance of win-win outcome is more when compare to any other strategy. CONCLUSION: Organization are dynamic entities, which is continously changing its internal and external environments, to develop congruousness among the people, process and structure. As discussed contemporary perspectives on conflict, tell that conflict cannot be put on end to a state in organizational life. Conflict is dynamic activity that help us to emphasize on process, meaning, and variety of procedures and relationships. I think understanding conflict help us to better understanding about organization if it is in. If there is a Conflict in any organization it help scholars and reasearchers to give insight understanding more about culture, power, change, development and other significant phenomenon in organization. Conflict may help to see the things in a new way, it help to promote different analysis, clarification in goals, increases energies, give chance for alternatives and changes, and complex problem can be solved. If conflict manage effectively it protect the organisation. Conflict enlighten the concept of rationality, which help better understanding and analyzing of organizational behavior. Organizational conflict are not evil, and in fact there is no need to eliminate it, but it should be manage properly for enhancing individuals, groups, and organizational effectiveness. It is a phenomenon, just it can be constructive or destructive effects on organization, but it completely depends on how it is managed by the management. Conflicts can be dysfunctional when people are not able to tolerate it, and the reason may be rigidity of the organization structure which gives fewer opportunities to changes. This may be because of ignorance of the participants who not give importance and ready to change any time when required. So we can say that organization conflict may be because of ignorance, intolerance, vested interests, intolerant and rigidity. As discussed earlier conflict is not necessarily a bad thing, it is can be seen as a ‘constructive’ force and in certain circumstances and it can be welcomed or even encouraged. It helps improving organization design and functioning and to the decision-making process which help to adapt internal and external changes. If conflict identified and managed properly, it can help reduce the destructive influences in the organization. Organization ducation in subjects like Human Relation, Human Resource Management or Development, and Industrial Relations tell that conflict can be managed and its management is very important. And literature tells that how acknowledgement of conflict and its significant in the organization. So we can say that all type of conflicts are not bad, and it is always not necessary to remove, left, or ignore the conflict in the org anizational life but it should be manage properly so that it help for survival of the organization without any effect on organization goals. Now I can say that conflict leads to change, change leads to adaptation, and adaptation leads to survival. REFERENCES: 1. ANDERSON & KYPRIANOU. 1994. Effective Organizational Behaviour. edn. Oxford: Blackwell 2. BUCHANAN & HUCZYNSKI. 2010. Organizational Behaviour. 7th edn. England: Pearson Education Ltd 3. BUTLER & ROSE. 2011. Introduction to Organisational Behaviour. edn. London: CIPD House 4. CLEGG & HARDY. 1999. Studying Organization: Theory & method. 1st edn. London: SAGE 5. FINCHAM & RHODES, 2005. Principles of Organizational Behaviour. 4th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press Inc. , New York 6. KATZ & KAHN. 1966. The Social Psychology of Organizations. edn. USA: John Wiley & Sons 7. MULLINS, J. 2010. Management & Organisational Behaviour. 9th edn. England: Pearson Education Ltd 8. NEWSTROM & DAVIS. 2002. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior At Work . 11th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin 9. NEWSTROM, W. 2007. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior at Work. 12Th edn. Singapore: McGraw-Hill/Irwin 10. ROBBINS, P. 1983. Organization Theory: The Structure and Design of Organisations. edn. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall